The Complete Guide to AI Embeddings (With Python Code)

Similarity Search

The core operation: given a query, find the most similar items.

import numpy as np
from numpy.linalg import norm

def cosine_similarity(a: np.ndarray, b: np.ndarray) -> float:
    return np.dot(a, b) / (norm(a) * norm(b))

# Compare similarity
query = model.encode("machine learning algorithms")
documents = [
    model.encode("supervised learning classification methods"),
    model.encode("best pizza delivery services"),
    model.encode("neural network training techniques"),
]

for i, doc in enumerate(documents):
    sim = cosine_similarity(query, doc)
    print(f"Document {i}: {sim:.4f}")

# Output:
# Document 0: 0.7823  (related!)
# Document 1: 0.1234  (not related)
# Document 2: 0.8156  (very related!)

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Vector Databases

For production use, you need a vector database that handles billions of vectors efficiently.

Pinecone Example

from pinecone import Pinecone

pc = Pinecone(api_key="your-key")
index = pc.Index("my-index")

# Upsert vectors
vectors = [
    {"id": "doc1", "values": embedding1, "metadata": {"title": "ML Basics"}},
    {"id": "doc2", "values": embedding2, "metadata": {"title": "Pizza Guide"}},
]
index.upsert(vectors=vectors)

# Query
results = index.query(
    vector=query_embedding,
    top_k=5,
    include_metadata=True
)

Supabase pgvector (Free Option)

-- Enable the extension
CREATE EXTENSION IF NOT EXISTS vector;

-- Create a table with a vector column
CREATE TABLE documents (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    content TEXT,
    embedding vector(1536)
);

-- Insert with embedding
INSERT INTO documents (content, embedding)
VALUES ('Machine learning basics', '[0.1, 0.2, ...]');

-- Similarity search
SELECT content, 1 - (embedding  '[0.15, 0.25, ...]') AS similarity
FROM documents
ORDER BY embedding  '[0.15, 0.25, ...]'
LIMIT 5;

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Practical Applications

1. Semantic Search Engine

Replace keyword search with meaning-based search. Users can search “how to fix slow website” and find documents about “performance optimization” even if those words don’t appear.

2. Duplicate Detection

Find near-duplicate content by comparing embedding similarity. Useful for content moderation, plagiarism detection, and deduplication.

3. Recommendation Systems

Embed user preferences and item descriptions. Recommend items whose embeddings are closest to the user’s preference vector.

4. Clustering and Classification

Group similar items automatically using k-means or HDBSCAN on embeddings. No labels needed — the structure emerges from the data.

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Choosing an Embedding Model

• OpenAI text-embedding-3-large: Best quality, $0.13/million tokens
• OpenAI text-embedding-3-small: Good quality, $0.02/million tokens
• Cohere embed-v4: Competitive quality, good for multilingual
• all-MiniLM-L6-v2: Free, runs locally, 384 dimensions, great for prototyping
• BGE-large-en-v1.5: Free, runs locally, 1024 dimensions, production-ready quality

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People Also Ask

How many dimensions should embeddings have?

More dimensions capture more nuance but cost more to store and search. For most applications, 768-1536 dimensions is the sweet spot. 384 is fine for prototyping.

Can I use embeddings for images?

Yes — CLIP and similar models create embeddings for both text and images in the same vector space. You can search for images using text queries and vice versa.

How much does vector storage cost?

Pinecone: ~$0.33/million vectors/month. Supabase pgvector: included in Supabase pricing. Self-hosted Qdrant or Chroma: just your server costs.

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